No Universally Agreed Definition Of Corporate Social Responsibility Management Essay

No Universally Agreed Definition Of Corporate neighborly office Management EssayWith no universally concur definition of Corporate Social Responsibility, myriad of call Corporate accountability, Corporate sustainability, Corporate citizenship or Sustainable accountable telephone line have been apply interchangeably to describe the practice of CSR. Basically, CSR is a discharge of duty towards society. problem and society be interrelated rather than being distinct entities and therefore, society has certain expectations for nominate business behaviour and outcomes ( woodland, 1991). According to Mallen Baker (2004), CSR is more or less how companies manage business operations to produce positive impact on society. Consequently, companies need to account for the bore of their management (both in terms of people and process) and the nature of and quantity of their impact on society in unhomogeneous areas.1In the 1950s, Howard Bowen first published a seminal book Social r esponsibilities of businessman in which he famously posed the question What responsibilities to society may businessman reasonably be anticipate to assume. This publication evidently marked the beginning of a modern era of CSR as it we know it today (Carroll, 1999). Since then, the notion of CSR has come to dominate the society-business interface and heterogeneous theories and concepts have been proposed. According to Bowen (1953), favorable responsibilities refer to the obligation of businessman to pursue those policies, to make those decisions, or to fol pocket-size those lines of action which are desirable in terms of objectives and values of our society.The most applied definition of CSR comes from Archie Carroll (1979) who argues that the social office of business encompasses economic, legal, ethical and discretionary expectations that society has of organisations at a given point in time. This show up encompasses a whole range of responsibilities of a firm. In the same ve in, Lichtenstein et al. (2004) and Lindgreen et al. (2008) consider that an organisation needs to define its role within the society and carry through the necessary ethical, responsible, legal and social standards to their firm. Conversely, Gssling and Vocht (2007) described CSR from a different viewpoint as an obligation of the business world to be accountable to its inbuilt stakeholder customers, employees, telephone lineholders, communities and ecological consideration in all aspects of their operations (Gokulsing, 2001).2.1.1 Corporate Social Responsibility Corporate Social PerformanceThe current globalisation trend and maturation demand from stakeholders towards companies to adopt CSR practices within their business strategy have indeed encouraged companies involvement in such practices (Chapple and Moon, 2005). Therefore, companies that are considered as socially responsible are experiencing triple bottom line benefits associated with such social initiatives. Additional ly, companies are not only assessed via handed-down achievement indicators but also by the focal point they interact with broad set of social demands. However, CSR being impossible to card (Van Beurden Gossling, 2008), an observable and measurable outcome of CSR term Corporate Social Performance (CSP) is utilise to capture the performance of CSR strategies within the society.Carroll (1979) vaguely defines CSP construct as a three dimensional influence that consisted of social debt instrument categories, social issues and philosophies of social responsiveness. twist on Carrolls attempt to define CSP, Wartick and Cochran (1985) offer a general framework of CSP by defining CSP influence as the beneathlying interaction among the principle of social responsibility, the process of social responsiveness and the policies developed to address social issues and show how several competing perspectives (economic responsibility, public responsibility, social responsiveness) can be inc orporated into his framework. Nevertheless, Wood (1991) argues that although Wartick and Cochran (1985) model is innovative, it is still incomplete. Wood (1991) declares that the term performance relates to actions and outcomes and not interaction and integration.Consequently, Wood (1991) refine Wartick and Cochrans (1985) model to integrate various theoretical perspectives into a coherent CSP model and as such, he defines CSP as a business organisations configuration of principles of social responsibility, process of social responsiveness and policies, programs and observable outcomes as they relate to the firms societal consanguinitys. Wood (1991) affirms that the principles of social responsibility operates at three levels specifically institutional, organizational and individuals. Conversely, Gond and Crane (2010) define CSP as an umbrella concept which includes organisational process of environmental assessment, stakeholder management and various measures of its external outp ut and societal manifestations (Orlitzky, 2008).2.1.2 Forms of CSR initiativesBasically, CSR includes a variety of socially responsible activities. Kotler and Lee (2005) identified six major initiatives under which most CSR related activities perish generating a positive impact on the familiarity. The six different forms of CSR initiatives are as follows2.1.3 Main approaches of CSRIn response to the question to whom an organisation has a responsibility, Marrewijk (2003) presents a sequence review of three corporate responsibility approaches Shareholder approach, Stakeholder approach and Societal approach.2.1.4 Factors influencing level of CSR activitiesReview of prior literature indicates that companies really differ in how they implement their CSR strategies. This can normally be explained using a range of company level attributes that influence the companys CSR participation. These attributes entailCompany sizeWaddock and Graves (1997) and Itkonen (2003) provide that company s ize is related to CSP since bigger companies have been found to be much socially responsible than smaller ones.Type of persistenceMcGuire et al. (2003) argues that the type of indus bear witness plays an grievous role in identifying the level of CSR activities. For instance, the CSR activities differ from manufacturing sector to service sector (Kolk, 2003).Financial riskOrlitzky and Benjamin (2001) stray that a company with low CSP shall consider and manage its social responsibility since such a company will have an adverse impact in terms of risk.2.1.5 Social Responsibility ModelsThe Pyramid of CSRThe professor Archie Carroll is one of the first academics to make a distinction mingled with different kinds of organisational responsibilities. This distinction is referred to as a firms pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility. The pyramid implies a hierarchy of responsibilities moving from economic and legal through more socially oriented ones of ethical and philanthropic respo nsibilities (Carroll, 1979 1991).http//www.witszen.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/02/carrollCSR.jpgSource (http//www.witszen.com/how-companies-should-use-social-media-for-better-corporate-social-responsibility/)Economic ResponsibilitiesCarroll (1979) argues that business institutions are basic economic unit in society and have a responsibility that is economic in nature or kind. The economic responsibility is the most fundamental responsibility of a company which reflects the essence of a company as a profit-making business organisation. The remaining three kinds of social responsibility are based on the economic responsibilities. The economic responsibility implies that society expects business to produce those goods and services demanded and make a profit as an bonus or reward for the business efficiency and effectiveness.Legal ResponsibilitiesThe legal responsibilities entail expectations of legal compliance and playing the rules of the games. From this perspective, society expects business to fulfill its economic legation within the framework set forth by the societys legal system (Jamali, 2008). Crane and Matten (2004) encourage adds that all companies attempting to be socially responsible are necessitate to follow the law.Ethical ResponsibilitiesAccording to Schwartz (2011), the ethical responsibilities embody those standards, norms or expectations that reflect a concern for what consumers, employees, shareholders and the community regards as fair, just or in charge with the respect or protection of stakeholders moral rights. Therefore, society expects corporations to act ethically towards its stakeholders (Crane and Matten, 2004).Philanthropic ResponsibilitiesThese responsibilities which represents the smallest layer of the pyramid, involves the corporations willingness to enhance the quality of living of their stakeholders through charitable donations and organisational sustain that are entirely voluntary and seen as desirable by society. The philant hropic responsibilities are close totimes on the same level as ethical. However, the difference is that it is not seen as unethical behaviour if business does not contribute their money to humanitarian programmes (Carroll, 1991).Carrolls CSR Pyramid in Developing CountriesIn a review of CSR in developing countries, Visser (2006) bases himself on the empirical studies undertaken by Pinkston and Carroll (1994), Edmondson and Carroll (1999) and Burton et al. (2000) to underline the fact that culture may have an valuable influence on perceived CSR priorities. As such, the astray accepted Carrolls pyramid is revisited in the context of developing countries as shown belowSource Visser, W. (2006)Revisiting Carrolls CSR Pyramid An African Perspective, In E.R. Pedersen M. Huniche (eds.),Corporate Citizenship in Developing Countries, Copenhagen Copenhagen Business School PressVisser (2006) contends that the order of CSR layers in developing countries taken as relative emphasis assigned t o various responsibilities differs from Carrolls classic pyramid. Hence, in developing countries, rase if economic responsibilities still get the most emphasis, philanthropy is given the second highest priority followed by legal and then ethical responsibilities. This is explained partly by the traditional attachment to philanthropy by the fact that it is most direct way to improve living conditions in their immediate surroundings and also by a traditional culture of fatalism, dependence and assistance in developing countries (Ragodoo, 2009). Conversely, the pressure to comply with existing legislation is less as compared to the developed countries.Three heavens Model of CSRSchwartz and Carroll (2003) highlight certain limitations in Carrolls CSR pyramid. Firstly, the pyramid suggests a hierarchy of CSR domains whereby one may conclude that the domain at the top is more important than the domain at the base. This is clearly not the kind of CSR priorities that Carroll intended in his CSR pyramid. Secondly, the pyramid framework cannot fully capture the overlapping nature of CSR domains. Hence, extrapolating from Carrolls model, Schwartz and Carroll (2003) proposed an alternative approach to conceptualise CSR a three-domain model.The three-domain model is presented with three core domains of economic, legal and ethical responsibilities that are depicted in a venn model framework. Initially, it suggests that none of the CSR domains is prima facie more important or significant relative to the others. The venn model framework actually yields seven CSR categories from an overlap of the three core domains. However, the exception with this model is that the philanthropic category, if exist, is subsumed under the ethical and/or economic domains. The figure below illustrates the venn model framework originated from Schwartz and Carroll (2003) researchSource Management for Social Enterprise, Bob Doherty,George Foster,Chris Mason,John Meehan,Karon Meehan,Neil Rothero e,Maureen Royce2.2 CSR Reporting found on their research on CSR divine revelation, Holder-Webb et al. (2009) assert that it is not enough for corporations to simply engage in CSR activities but it is also important and desirable to make training about these activities available to stakeholders. Additionally, the call for disclosure of non-financial instruction has grown in response to the awareness that financial statement omits salient reading about the company (Adams et al. 2011). The financial statement actually portrays a limited picture of the company through providing merely financial metrics. Therefore, the relevance of non-financial information has increased markedly over the years. The emergence of non-financial describe can be seen as an attempt to increase transparency with respect to corporate actions concerning social and environmental issues (Nielsen Thomsen, 2007). Further, it is acknowledged that the disclosure of non-financial information is essential to reduce information asymmetry that exists between management and key stakeholders (Narayanan et al. 2000) as well as to allow togors to better assess key areas of performance and support a broader view of corporate performance that encompasses society at large (Holder-Webb et al. 2009).2.2.1 Motivation for CSR ReportingAlong with the increased interest to engage in CSR activities, today corporations across the world are more voluntarily disclosing information about their CSR performance. Undeniably, numerous motivational bases can explain companies involvement in CSR reporting practices.Threat to the organisations legitimacyThe legitimacy speculation posits that there is a social contract between companies and the society in which they operate (Deegan 2002 Mathew 1993 Patten 1992). Therefore, corporation try to legitimise their corporate actions by engaging in CSR reporting to get the approval from society and thus, ensuring their continuing existence (Belal, 2008).Increase access to cap ital and shareholder valueRoberts (1992) assert that one way that firms consider CSR disclosure is to increase access to capital and shareholder value by sateing stakeholders expectation. Investors are choosing to invest in organisation that is demonstrating a high level of CSR (Baron, 2008).Enhance corporate reputationBranco and Rodrigues (2008) argue that CSR disclosure (CSRD) is an important mechanism to enhance the effect of CSR on corporate reputation as well as representing a signal of improved social and environmental conduct. In their research on CSRD and corporate reputation, Bayoud et al. (2012) confirms that a high level of CSRD is strongly associated with corporate reputation for stakeholder group.Risk ManagementAccording to Kytle et al. (2005), reporting practices have become a key management hammer to the growing complexity to multinational business management. He further argues that reporting helps to integrate CSR activities into companies strategic risk management so that the impact of CSR activities can be maximised.Employee attraction, motivation and retentionWaddock et al (2002) argue that employees perceptions about how a corporation accepts and manages its responsibilities are often part of the employees decision about where to work. Therefore, publication of sustainability related information can play a role of positioning a company as an employer of choice and as such, this status can enhance loyalty, reduce staff turnover and increase a companys ability to attract and retain high quality employees (Group of 100 KPMG, 2008).Financial performanceMargolis and Walsh (2003) claim that corporations engagement in CSR activities and its disclosure can foster corporate performance and as such their research conclude a positive relationship between CSR performance and financial performance. Similarly, Balbanis, Philips and Lyall (1998) divulge that economic performance is related to both CSR performance and disclosure although having a weak relationship and lack of overall consistency.2.3 Theories on CSRVarious theories have been used over the years to demonstrate the behavior of economic units related to CSR issues. The relevant theories areAgency surmisalProponents of economic theories are among the first to write about corporate social involvement although considering it as a flaw in corporate thinking.Stewardship possible actionSocial contract theoryThe social contract theory begins in the classic period of history and takes its modern form in the 16th and 18th centuries with best known philosophers like Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau.Legitimacy theoryDeegan and Unerman (2006) assert that the legitimacy theory relies upon the notion that there is a social contract between an organisation and the society in which it operates. The social contract as explained by Deegan (2000), represents myriad of expectations that society has about how an organisation should conduct its operations.Stakeholder theoryFreeman (1984) arg ues that managers should not just focus on stockholders need, but rather must satisfy a variety of stakeholders. As such, the stakeholder theory is used to analyse those groups to whom a firm should be responsible (Moir, 2001).2.4 Corporate Financial PerformancePrice and Mueller (1986) assert that corporate financial performance (CFP) depicts the financial viability of an organisation. Therefore, corporations need to disseminate information about their financial performance as an account of managements stewardship as well as a means of assessing the entitys capacity to generate cashflows (Stein, 2000). Additionally, the financial performance is a subjective measure of the effectiveness with which an organisation makes use of its resources to attain its economic or financial goals.Basically, an organisations financial performance can be measured using three alternative approaches foodstuff-based measure, accounting-based measure and perceptual-based measure (Orlitzky, 2003). The ma rket measure focuses on the firms stock price to evaluate its financial performance. McGuire et al (1998) argue that the market measure represents investors evaluation of the ability of a firm to generate future economic earnings. Alternatively, the accounting-based measure captures the firms competitive effectiveness and internal efficiency as well as optimal utilisation of assets. This measure represents financial performance using three divisions (i) yield on Asset (ROA) and Return on Equity (ROE) (Waddock and Graves, 1997) (ii) profitability in absolute terms (Stanwick and Stanwick, 1998) and (iii) multiple accounting based measure with the overall office score of 0-10 (Moore, 2001). Finally, the perceptual measure uses subjective judgment about the firms financial performance which is provided by survey respondents (Wartick, 1988).2.4.1 Relationship between CSP and CFPThe nature of the relationship between a firms socially responsible behaviour and its financial performance h as extensively been debated till today and yet it remains unsolved (Margolis and Walsh, 2003). Preston and OBannon (1997) actually highlights two important issues in the relationship between CSP and CFP Direction and Causality of the relationship. The direction of the relationship can be positive, neutral or even negative.The positive direction of the relationship can be explained using the instrumental stakeholder theory. This theory suggests that the satisfaction of various stakeholder groups is instrumental for the organisational financial performance (Donaldson and Preston, 1995). Conversely, the negative relationship is based on the neoclassic economic theory which argues that a socially responsible firms costs are considered unnecessary and thus can lead to a competitive disadvantage such that a decrease in firms profit and shareholder wealth (Preston and OBannon, 1997). Finally, the neutral relationship between the two constructs, as provided by Waddock and Graves (1997) exi sts by coincidence. McWilliam and Siegel (2001) further explain that a company acting responsibly to customers can have different demand curve as compared to a less responsible one. Therefore, the CSR activities are only a way to attain differentiation and thus, do not impact on companys profit.The causality of the relationship as pointed out by Preston and OBannon (1997) actually denotes whether CSP or CFP is an independent or dependent variable. Therefore, in such a case, if CSP is an independent variable, it comes first to push CFP while if CSP is a dependent variable, CFP comes first to affect CSP. Such an argument is also raised by Griffin and Mahon (1997) who question whether a company is better off focusing on CSP or CFP first. In view of explaining the causality of the relationship, Waddock and Graves (1997) and Dean (1999) proposes two theories such as the slack resource theory and good management theory. The slack resource theory explains that a firm shall have good finan cial performance to contribute to the corporate social performance. It further posits that a company conducting social performance requires some funds that may result from the success of financial performance. Therefore, this theory argues that financial performance comes first and is an independent variable to affect CSP. Conversely, the good management theory argues that social performance actually comes first. This theory provides that CSP is an independent variable resulting in CFP and companies having good reputation achieve good financial position through market mechanism.2.5 Empirical review