Hypothetical Research Proposal Social Psychology Essay

Understanding media in today’s world is more than intellectual exercise, it is essential survival skill in a world that has been absolutely changed by mass communication. Hundreds of studies have shown that viewing violence in the media can influence destructive behavior. This paper will review research involving the relationship between the media and violence. Since, women’s issue to violence embodies many areas of social life and is very much rampant and relevant in our society today; violence to women will be used for the representation for this paper. After taken into account, the finding will show that the rising of media and the violence among women in the society has strong significant effect. Introduction In 2003, Allan Menzies stabbed his best friend, drank his blood and ate part of his skull. Utterly this murder was different from the many horrible murders that are committed. Menzies claimed that the character, Akasha, from the vampire film Queen of the Damned had told him to kill his friend as a way of gaining immortality. Menzies was possessed with the film and had viewed it over 100 times before â€Å"acting on the orders† of the vampire queen (Robertson 2003). The case of Menzies certainly demonstrates the intimate relationship between media and violence. However, violence news is often selective and distorted, giving an inaccurate picture of violence in society. This observation has led Warr (2000:482) to argue that â€Å"violence rests on highly uncertain information about risk† In fact, Fields and Jerin (1999) carried out a comparative analysis of violence coverage in newspapers in fourteen different countries. In the US, they found evidence of misinterpretation, overrepresentation of violent, heavy reliance on â€Å"official† sources, false image of police effectiveness, uniform crime coverage, lack of educational value, racial prejudice and/or stereotyping, and little coverage of corrections. This is a significant finding as the majority of citizens only have symbolic rather than experiential knowledge about violence. Consequently, when the media are the primary knowledge distributors about violence, distortions such as these are readily available to construct public perceptions. And because the consequences of violence can be severe, these perceptions can lead to an increased concern about violence victimization. This â€Å"resonance† hypothesis argues that the media â€Å"cultivate† a threatening view of the world, which compounds preexisting violence (Bagdikian, 2000). Literature Review This literature review will introduce the theoretical perspectives that will guide this study in understanding the construction of a gendered crime â€Å"reality†. The key concepts of social constructioinism and feminist criminology will be explained and will be illustrated in relation to fear of crime. The connection between the media and fear of crime will be explain with an emphasis on the distortion of knowledge, audience effects, and media content and claims. Further, the effects of political economy on discursive transformations in the presentations of crimes will be address. Impact of the Media The media has the potential for far greater impact than interpersonal communication, if only because of the larger audience and the professional nature of the messages. The impact might be seen in audience pleasure or buying behavior or it might be seen in an unintentional effect such as young child’s imitating the violent behavior seen in a favorite T. V. show or video game (Rodman, 2006). This impact becomes the part of the feedback sent to the source, perhaps as news reports about studies into effects of media. Social Theory, Media, and Violence The relationship between violence and the media is complex. For example, Barak, (1994) finds that although the press does not present a consistently biased impression of media and violence through their process of selection, he discovers little evidence to suggest that this is very influential on public perceptions of, and opinions about, these phenomena. On the other hand, Sheley (1995) argues that the media responds to and stimulates violence and are probably the single greatest influence on public attitudes about the topic. However, both social constructionists and radical feminist criminologists see the mass media as particularly relevant when studying violence, as the meaning and significance attached to a violent event during its commission can be transformed entirely once it is communicated into society. As Stanko (1992:14) notes: The full social and personal consequences of violence can never be deduced from the simple enumeration of risks. Like other human experiences they necessarily involve representation, communication and attribution of significance and it is for this reason that the understanding of the character and uses of mass media may be able not simply to help explain the distribution of expressed fears but also to illuminate their nature and implications. The significance of this violence as it relates to culture needs to be taken into consideration in order to understand the transformations commonly found in media narratives over time. In addition, a â€Å"lack of sensitivity to media-generated reality-constructing processes has serious real-world implications† (Surette, 1998:271). Heavy violence coverage in the media can not only increase public fear, it can also direct much public discourse on the violent issue which leads to stereotypical views of violence, shapes certain violent as social problems, and limits violence control options (Barak, 1998:44). Working within the social constructionist paradigm, I argue that effect of violence is a social process rather than a social fact: reactions to violence are subjective and dynamic. Not only are these reactions based on the actions of certain social groups who have the power to set forth their own interests over others, and who employ â€Å"experts† to offer professional credibility to support their claims, but they are also based on dominant cultural ideologies. In turn, the media disseminates these â€Å"truth† claims as they see fit, creating a â€Å"conceptual reality† for public consumption. I consider this constructed reality and its relation to violence exploding: Who are constructed as deviant â€Å"outsiders? † What claims and claims-makers are central to the discourse? What preferred rules does the media maintain? Who is given the most voice to speak authoritatively? In the hierarchy of violence, what is the â€Å"master of offence? † Do the violent messages discuss possible solutions to violence? Are the violent messages sensationalistic? Are random violence reported the most often? Research Question and Aim of this Research This proposal will examine how the media constructs fear of crime for women, and explains why. It will employ both content and textual analyses to evaluate media representations of crime and their role in facilitating images of fear and safety. Moreover, I will utilize feminist criminology and social constructionism to allow an evaluation of claims-making activities and gendered crime myths. Ultimately, the aim of this research is to examine how the media are constructed as sites of fear for women. To accomplish this, I would like to answer the following questions: 1. Do crime messages signify fear of crime? 2. How do the media define fear and reveal its meaning to audience members? Is this â€Å"reality† contested over time, and if so, why? Hypotheses: The meaning associated with women’s danger and safety in news narratives are socially constructed through claims, sources, content and culture, making the â€Å"social reality of crime† a human accomplishment. Method Design I will analyze an issue of a three popular women’s magazines as my primary data for violent messages since it embodies many areas of social life, making it culturally significant. Moreover, magazines give a less fragmented picture of the total violence phenomenon than say newspapers, and their documentary style gives a more elaborate perspective than the information oriented style of newspapers. The analysis will be done through content analysis. Data Collection Procedure Magazines represented a variety of violence narratives as â€Å"newsworthy. † That is, these magazines found violence to be interesting or exciting enough to attract and inform consumers, and therefore violence narratives were considered important elements when producing the news. Among the violent messages such as; sexual brutality received almost one-half (50%) of the coverage. This included; rape, sexual assault, and sexual harassment/discrimination. The reporters often evinced the personal accounts of those who were victims. This added an emotional dimension to the narratives; bringing to the reader an â€Å"eyewitness† account, rather than an â€Å"objective† report of the facts. Child abuse, which included physical and emotional abuse, followed closely in frequency (25 %), while domestic violence (8%) and murder (7%) remained minor but persistent narratives. Magazines reporters also wrote about criminal justice issues such as the death penalty and victimology (3. 5%). Violent such as burglary (3. 0%), juvenile delinquency (2. 0%), and illicit drug use (1. 5%) were infrequently in the news stories, and other crimes, such as fraud and kidnapping, were not mentioned in all three magazines. News, Sources, and the Production of Meaning Various sources of knowledge about violent, law and violence justice were represented in the news making process to create meaning. There were five types of sources used by reporters to construct violence narratives. First, government sources were cited in 60 percent of the violence articles. Representatives of the violence justice system, such as police, lawyers, judges, and correctional officials, were used as sources in nearly one-third (33%) of all violence articles. Less frequently, other government agencies, such as social workers and child welfare/ protection services were offered as knowledge sources by reporters (5%). As well, politicians, or elected officials, were occasionally used to supply knowledge (2%). Gender and Violence Narratives Media violence depictions were consistently gendered and women’s fear of violence was constantly constructed and reconstructed. â€Å"Intimate danger† was portrayed in 62. 6 % of the violence messages; â€Å"stranger danger† was highlighted in only 23. 2 percent of the news stories and 14. 2 percent of the narratives did not mention danger in all. In all time frames, intimate danger was more commonly constructed than was stranger danger. Intimate danger was present in over half of all articles. Overwhelmingly, familiar dangers were most newsworthy. Sex was ultimately connected to danger in the media discourses with over half (60%) of all violence messages signifying it. Over different time frames, sexual danger was present in 62. 5 % of all articles. A discourse of sexual inequality in an issue of the three different popular women’s magazines also contributed to the gendered nature of violence. One-fourth, (25%) of all crime articles connected sexual inequality to violence. This suggests that women’s fear of violence was linked to their subordinate status, and can best be understood in the context of broader social inequalities. In sum, the media instructed women to be most fearful people they knew in their own home, to fear violence of sexual nature and foremost, and to fear for themselves, but also for others. Violence and Media Coverage The crime reports in an issue of the three popular women’s magazines consistently supplied readers with the resources needed to understand and comprehend violence, particularly on a social and environmental level. By explaining the source and foundations for violence, journalists did not leave readers asking â€Å"why. † And by demonstrating how to cope with violence, audience members were given solutions that could ultimately be used to exert some control over their own lives. As a result, the news narratives presented violence as both avoidable and manageable. Further, violence accounts were presented in a manner that kept the audience informed about violent and violence justice issues without relying on dramatic flair. In sum, violence and violent justice was framed, in form and content, around an ideology of violence against women, this constructed a gendered nature of fear. This required sourcing the news in a specific manner in order to produce journalists` preferred meaning. For the most part, a central objective for journalists was to inform the audience about the broader social forces that influenced violence as it related to women: the violent event was a means to educate the reader about the foundation of crime and its prevention. Data Analysis and Expected Results In the production of news, news coverage was shaped according to the journalists` particular conceptions of violence. Extensive and various sources merged to define violent danger, establishing a version of the social reality of violent that differed considerably from other mediums of knowledge. For example, a sense of societal responsibility to end violence against women often guided the newsmaking process, unlike the majority of mainstream newspaper and television violent reports that individualized the predator criminal (Surette, 2004). The violence accounts in an issue of the three popular women’s magazines had a definite feminist agenda: to acknowledge the obstacles and inequality inherent within law and violence justice practices, and to support social and legal resolutions that eliminated male violence against women. By providing violence coverage from an experiential standpoint, and exposing myths commonly associated with women’s violence, journalists helped to reconstruct alternative violence news. In sum, two distinct patterns of news reporting will be observed throughout this research. Both patterns communicated violence and violence justice according to the journalists` â€Å"sense† of the issues: their preferred meanings, constructed through particular discursive arrangements, helped to construct different versions of the â€Å"reality† of violent risk. The dominant reporting style of the news in an issue of three popular women’s magazines promoted a feminist critique of women’s fear of violence based on women’s own experiences that downplayed indicators of fear and encouraged an informed understanding of the violence phenomenon. Rather than constructing random men as the source of danger, the â€Å"true† offenders will be reported to be sexism, ineffective laws, and a violence justice system that supported male violence against women. However, a minor and subordinate pattern of news reporting emerged that â€Å"mystified† the issue of violence and prohibited the consideration of contexts or alternatives. These constructions in the news coverage eventually reflected information and interpretations that supported official sources, changing the underlying ideology of social reform to self-responsibilization for violence. Conclusion In summary, by pursuing these research directions a greater understanding of the complex issues surrounding violence in the media will be advanced. Further knowledge about readers, news workers and policy makers will explicate the effects of gender, news production processes, and political influence on media images. Such multifaceted analyses serve to extend the understanding of media violence as a social construct. References Bagdikian, B. (2000). The media monopoly, 6th ed. Boston: Beacon Press. Barak, G. (1998). Newsmaking criminology: Reflections on the media, intellectuals, and crime. Justice Quarterly 5: 565-87. Barak, G. (1994). Media, process, and the social construction of crime. New York: Garlan

Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf?

Edward Albee's â€Å"Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf† is a play based on illusions. Each character lives their life behind some sort of illusion whether it's based on their past, their marriage or their whole life. Each illusion presents a view into their personal lives and either connects or tears apart relationships in each character's life. George's life is surrounded by illusions. He never was able to succeed in anything he attempts and Martha finds joy in attacking him emotionally for this.He first wrote a novel which Martha's father refused to publish. The storyline is first brought up through him telling Nick a story from his adolescence. It's the story of his friend who kills both of his parents and ends up institutionalized. When it's brought up in Act 1 by Martha, she presents it by saying â€Å"†Well, Georgie boy had lots of big ambitions In spite of something funny in his past†¦ Which Georgie boy here turned into a novel†¦ His first attempt and his last†¦ † (149) This makes the reader question if maybe his friend was actually him.Regardless of who it was about, George is angry that Martha brought up his novel because it shows a weakness about him. The novel was one of his ways of escaping reality and even that was put down. He had hopes of his novel become a success and instead he has to live with Martha who insists on telling everyone that he is a â€Å"great†¦ big†¦ fat†¦ FLOP! † (93) The biggest illusion in George's own life is the mystery behind whether the tragic novel he wrote was an autobiographical story or just a piece of fiction.When Nick and Honey are introduced they seem young, vibrant and happy. Once Honey leaves the scene in Act 2 Nick tells George about an illusion that actually brought Nick to marry Honey. Nick tells George that he married Honey because she was pregnant and George questions him since he said earlier that he had no children. Nick tells him, â€Å"She wasn't real ly. It was a hysterical pregnancy. She blew up, and then she went down. †(104) Honey faked a pregnancy to make Nick marry her so their whole relationship is based on an illusion.He later reveals that Honey's family had a good amount of money and that is good enough reason to stay with her. Throughout the whole play Nick is shushing and talking over Honey. He is embarrassed of her simple-mindedness but deals with her because he is stuck with her.. George and Martha's son was a lie. George pushes her to talk about him and she glorifies him. Once she is done George shoots her down and kills him off using the same storyline as his novel. This shows the fiction and illusion behind their son.She is so heartbroken after there illusion is exposed that she doesn't know how to live without pretending she has a son. The illusion of their son gave them something to relate through. George was sick of pretending and realized that it was time to face the truth and begin actually living life without illusions. QUOTES â€Å"Isn’t tomorrow supposed to be his birthday or something? 76† â€Å"The one thing 241†Ã¢â‚¬ Whose afraid of Virginia Woolf? I am257† Why do people live behind illusions? Does it make life easier or in the end does it make it hurt more? Who is Virginia Woolf?

John Smith’s Account of the Founding of Jamestown in 1607

The colony at Jamestown, the colonies at Plymouth, and the colony at Boston had different nature, goals, successes and failures. There was a cross of similarities and differences. One thing that remains obvious is each was looking for something that was lacking in their home land. There was a perception and a picture that each group had when they left their homelands. Arrival in the new would prove to be an alternate reality from that which was envisioned. The new reality still provided a challenge for each settlement. This was to be a new start.This was an opportunity to establish something new. That would be a chance to be a part of something great. The New World offered opportunities to have success on a different level. Jamestown was a joint venture. People joined their financed together to create a business organization called a stock company. Like any other business the ultimate goal was to produce a profit. The initial settlers basically worked for the benefit of the joint sto ck company. They would not be completely free to make their own rules and regulations.There were specific rules even on the voyage of the rationing of the food. The Settlement of Jamestown shows s the initial days of Jamestown from the point of view of Captain John Smith. The very first impression of the New World gave foreshadowing of some of the doom and gloom in store for the travelers. As soon as they arrived on the shore they were attacked by travelers. That night a box was opened to give orders of how they were to organize and govern themselves according to the joint stock company.John Smith goes on to give an account of internal jealousy, trust, and greed issues of the group. That was compounded with the external sickness, disease, and multiple attacks by the savages that often resulted in death. He personally was on the verge of being killed when he was saved. Even the settlement was on the verge of dying out when God intervened and changed the hearts of the savages. This re sulted in the savages helping them. Captain John Smith acknowledges God’s hand in the survival of Jamestown.The settlement at Plymouth goes a little farther in establishing that God is one of the main reasons for the colony. Pilgrims were looking for religious liberty and anew way of life for their families. They were not crusaders out to change the world or gather riches. They were â€Å"humble English farmers† (Brands et al, 2009, p 42). Their first sight of land proved to be a joyous occasion. It was important and natural for them to give God praise for a successful voyage. The Pilgrims governing structure came from the self created Mayflower Compact.It was democratic in nature. They were in agreement from the beginning of the voyage that there was to be no overseas ruler. They each had their freedom. The Pilgrims contact with the savages was less confrontational than that of Jamestown. The savages tended to run as opposed to attacking the settlers. The Pilgrims had similar results in dealing with the sickness and diseases of the New World. John Winthrop and the Puritans had very ambitious ideas when they established the Boston colony. They had visions to what amounts to a utopian society.The goals were to show what Christian society could and should be. In A Model of Christian Charity, John Winthrop writes about what he envisioned as he traveled on the Arbella on his way to the New Word. Their life was to be based on scripture. The answer to how to deal with all situations would come from the Bible. Two of their main principles would be justice and mercy. How to deal with the rich and poor, friend and enemies and forgiveness would be very important in their settlement. The law would be based on God’s laws.Success would be determined by how people lived. They did not have to deal with the same level of sickness and diseases as Jamestown and Plymouth. If you asked the Puritans they would probably tell you that it is a direct result of th eir lifestyle and God’s presence. Captain John smith’s article seemed to present a dark mood as he described what he had to go through. He did not seem to have a very favorable outlook toward his fellow man. He mentions the good, bad and very ugly side of what man is capable of.The Puritans contrastingly, focused on the potential greatness of mankind. The Pilgrims were somewhere in the middle. Each article gave praises to God. God and religion played an important role in each colony.Bibliography Bradford, William. (1650). History of Plymouth Plantation. Brands, HWA, Breen, THH, Williams, R. Hal and Gross, A. J. (2009) American Stories: A History of the United States. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. Smith, John. (1604). The Settlement of Jamestown. Winthrop, John. (1630). A Model of Christian Charity.

Peer Response Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 6

Peer Response - Assignment Example Thus, to do this, one full time authorized officer should be governing IT operations and requirements on a continuing basis. The detailed information regarding the recommended IT General Control (ITGC) and application controls were commendable. It was also valid that a CIO or a CISO should be assigned to govern the operations and security of the information systems in the agency. The accountable officer should possess the competencies and qualifications for identifying IT infrastructure requirements and undertake risk assessment management, as required. One strongly believes that investing in these control systems, assigning point persons (officers and staff), and designing policies and procedures that would manage and protect the agency’s database systems would be crucial in safeguarding the agencies assets and resources, as required. Every organization, regardless of the number of personnel, as long as information systems are used, should assign IT personnel and officers who would manage IT in the most effective manner. Management functions include planning, organizing, directing, and controlling all facets of the operations (IT) towards the achievement of organizational

The advanced practice of strength and conditioning Essay - 1

The advanced practice of strength and conditioning - Essay Example But how he ended up with a new 9.58 seconds and 19.30 seconds in both individual sprints is one big story to reckon with for a long time. Let us keep pace with some of the salient points of this one of the most stimulating, motivational stories of man and his unbroken pursuit of excelling in the field by a mere breath or few-seconds hairline. One of the focal points of the discussion in a myriad of ideas in strength and conditioning is Usain Bolt himself and how and why many were awed by his performance at one of the world’s greatest sporting events. More interestingly, Bolt himself is a man just like us. Keywords: Bolt and man, poor mechanics, velocity, excitement USAIN BOLT, THE MAIN MAN HIMSELF 3 Usain Bolt, The Main Man Himself And Will Remain Every Athlete’s Model Of Success For Years To Come Let’s begin with an explosive starting gun. This is the very foundation of all winning strides in the 100-meter dash. Energy burst with the first burst. Analysis in Cis sik (89), categorically states the need, first and foremost, of the sprinter responding without delay to the starting gun and zoom out of the starting blocks at the most preferred reaction time of 0.12 seconds. Faster reaction naturally leads to an advantage faster than the opponents. Many can take a chance in the field where Bolt is now. It was inspiring to note that Bolt himself started from scratch with his own imperfections but individually endowed with certain physical qualities just the same as any man can be. Karp (52) explicitly mentioned that a person with a lot of talent almost always outperforms a person with little talent and a lot of training. The success of Mills and Bolt supported this theory with Mills (30 ) institutionalizing the 2008 Beijing phenomena of his own admission saying Bolt is an extremely gifted athlete despite the fact that he had to recreate certain aspects of Bolt’s biomechanical deficiencies and maximise use of functional training to bolster h is bid for a new world record. The arena of world excitement and velocity was the inevitable route, with just a bit of luck, talent and perseverance and a mentor who believes without a doubt that Bolt can take off. Coach Glen Mills said so succinctly in the NSA interview (30) that when he started working with Bolt, one of the things that stood out like a sore thumb was his poor mechanics. USAIN BOLT, THE MAIN MAN HIMSELF 4 The NSA interview dug deep into the core of the molding of Usain as an athlete with such inquiry as to how Mills had weighed up his athlete’s own methods. It had gain new insights to patient mentoring and methodical training as the interview reveals that Bolt then was running behind the center of balance, thus, his forward drive negates the compelling vigor and thrust. His pose leaves a strain on his posterior notably the lower back, there was a continual pull on his hamstring, so on and so forth. But the main recipe of the preparation was developing the at hlete to accomplish all the training regimens correctly, discarding the bad habits and adapt new and effective techniques. Body position, according to Seagrave, et al (21), is distinctively three-pronged as core stabilization, postural repositioning and control and vertical alignment. Perfect execution of all three vital elements are necessary to establish the best cruising pattern. One without

Strategic Corporate Finance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Strategic Corporate Finance - Essay Example An investor must be paid some price for this sacrifice (Brigham & Weston, 2009). So the future value of the dollar-assuming a positive rate of interest-will always be higher than its present value. Another reason for interest being charged on capital is that capital is one of the factors of production that can give access to men, materials and machinery, help automate and speed up processes and productivity in a short time and this is why the demand for capital attracts a price called the interest rate (Rao, 2011). Why is it Important for Financial Managers to Understand the Concept of Time Value of Money? Finance is the lifeblood of business and industry. Everything from running the day to day operations of an enterprise to meeting financial needs for future plans requires money. In fact investing surplus funds to get the best possible returns as well as keeping sufficient liquidity in the asset and liability mix is a key function of financial managers. They look at both present and future plans of the business and consider how to achieve these in the light of financial requirements (Crosson & Needles, 2008). This is why an understanding of the time value of money is of key importance to financial managers. They can match the funding and investment portfolios of the enterprise to get the best returns (Mathur, 1979). Calculations of the Future Value: a. $54,298 if invested for five years at a 7% interest rate FV= PV (1 + r)t FV= 52948(1 + 0.07)5 FV= 52948(1.07)5 FV= 52948 x 1.225 FV = $ 64,861. b. $99,112 if invested for three years at a 4% interest rate FV= PV (1 + r)t FV= 99112(1 + 0.04)3 FV= 99112(1.04)3 FV= 99112 x 1.125 FV = $ 111,501. c. $121,124 if invested for seven years at an 2% interest rate FV= PV (1 + r)t FV= 121124(1 + 0.02)7 FV= 112124(1.02)7 FV= 112124 x 1.149 FV = $128,830. d. $929,129 if invested for ten years with a 0.9% interest rate FV= PV (1 + r)t FV= 929129(1 + 0.009)10 FV= 929129(1.009)10 FV= 929129 x 1.09373 FV = $1,016,216. Calculation s of the Present Value: a. $455,126 to be received three years from now with a 4% Interest rate PV= FV/(1 + r)t PV= 455126/(1 + 0.04)3 PV= 455126/(1.04)3 PV= 455126 x 0.889 PV = $404,607. b. $289,231 to be received five years from now with a 5% interest rate PV= FV/(1 + r)t PV= 289231/(1 + 0.05)5 PV= 289231/(1.05)5 PV= 289231 x 0.864 PV = $249,896. c. $921,000 to received two years from now with a 12% interest rate PV= FV/(1 + r)t PV= 921000/(1 + 0.12)2 PV= 921000/(1.12)2 PV= 921000 x 0.797 PV = $734,037. d. $278,111 to be received eight years from now with a 1% interest rate. PV= FV/(1 + r)t PV= 278111/(1 + 0.01)8 PV= 278111/(1.01)8 PV= 278111 x 0.923 PV = $256,696. Suppose you are to receive a stream of annual payments (also called an "annuity") of $309,723 every year for three years starting this year. The interest rate is 4%. What is the present value of these three payments? PV of Annuity= PVA= A(PVFA)i,n PVA=309723(PVFA).04,3 PVA=309723 x 2.775 PVA=$859,481.32 Suppose you are to receive a payment of $239,201 every year for three years. You are depositing these payments in a bank account that pays 2% interest. Given these three payments and this interest rate, how much will be in your bank account in three years? FV of Annuity= FVAn=A(FVFA)i,n FVA=239201(FVFA).02,3 FVA=239201 x 3.060 FVA=$731,955. Evaluation of Module 2 Case Assignment The Module 2 case assignment gave me an opportunity to learn about the time value of

The Patriot Act, Tittle II, Section 203 Term Paper

The Patriot Act, Tittle II, Section 203 - Term Paper Example These improvements on the Title II of the Patriot Act turned out to be key elements of national security investigations. Therefore, this paper mainly focuses on the positive impacts of the Patriot Act in fighting terrorism and drug trafficking. The Patriot Act, Title II, Section 203 Introduction Before the Patriot Act came into place, the U.S. intelligence authorities had some restrictions while conducting their investigations. Since its inception, the US has managed to prevent serious attacks such as the 9/11 attack on the American homeland. It is worth mentioning that the Patriot Act has had a lot of benefits that enhance the ability of US authorities to investigate, prevent, and prosecute terrorists. The Act came in place barely 43 days after the 9/11 attack so as to introduce policies that will help in fighting terrorism. After the attacks, the US citizens felt that they were vulnerable for more attacks, thus the need by the government to undertake quick measures (Scheppler, 2005 ). On the other hand, the US government felt that it was necessary to have detailed information on its own citizens and foreign visitors. Indeed, many were of the opinion that if the government had taken stringent measures, the 9/11 attacks would have been prevented. This resulted to the passage of the Patriot Act (Scheppler, 2005). The U.S.A. ... Provisions within the Patriot Act streamlined the way to conduct investigations on various crimes differently from the traditional way (Painter, 2011). The patriot Act introduced a number of measures that would help in fighting terrorism, as well as other forms of crimes. Some of the prescribed measures expired and were never renewed, but a majority of the prescribed measures became permanent. To date, serious crimes in the US are handled using guidelines provided in the Patriot Act. Furthermore, some provisions have been amended to strengthen them further. Since the passage of the Act, there have been remarkable improvements in dealing with serious crimes (Painter, 2011). Measures within the patriot Act The patriot Act enables the US intelligence authorities to apply surveillance tools to investigate on terrorism and drug trafficking. Before the Act came into place, intelligence authorities required court permits in order to use electronic surveillance tools for investigations. In a ddition, intelligence authorities could not use wiretaps fully in conducting certain investigations without court permits. Enactment of the patriot Act enabled intelligence authorities to acquire information on a wide range of acts of terror such as chemical weapons, financing terrorism, and presence of weapons of mass destruction (Doyle, 2002). The passage of the patriot Act allowed federal agents to make follow ups on highly organized terrorists who evade detection. For a long period, federal agents have applied the use of roving wiretaps in conducting investigations on ordinary crimes. The use of wiretaps requires authorization from federal judges in order to apply them in investigations.

History Research Paper Outline Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

History Research Paper Outline - Essay Example During the period from 1762-1770, British government found itself in wars in Europe, West Indies, and Asia. This wars meant more money was required to service the British national debt(University of Massachusetts History Club 2).This led to heavy burden of taxes on British tax payers, including the colonies. British authorities began to issue a series of legislative acts which were intended to tax colonial residents (University of Massachusetts History Club 2). The acts were meant to help raise money to service the wars. If there was representation by Americans in the British parliament, these acts might not have passed because the representatives would have argued, and perhaps convinced the British authorities otherwise (University of Massachusetts History Club 2).Because there was no representation, these acts led to socioeconomic forces that destroyed the British colonial empire and subsequently led to the American Revolution. The stamp act that was passed by the British parliament, whose primary intention was to raise money for military defenses of the colonies, contributed to rising tensions. This revenue was to be achieved by ensuring the American population purchase stamps, which were a legal requirement for all official documents, licenses, and contracts (University of Massachusetts History Club 2). Newspapers were also included. This led to formation of the stamp act congress which was to be an act of defiance against the British measure (University of Massachusetts History Club 2). This congress, in their resolutions, declared and stated that they were entitled to the rights and liberties like all other British subjects. The most important declaration was their assertion that there cannot be taxation without representation (University of Massachusetts History Club 2).They believed that the only bodies that can legally impose an internal tax were their legislatures. When this resolution was sent to the British legislature, it was rejected on the

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) Research Paper - 4

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) - Research Paper Example 52).). Delaney clause on the other hand states that carcinogenic in food is unacceptable. Through this it protects public health and especially children who are vulnerable. However, every alternative to Delaney incorporates some risk assessment which defines certain levels of acceptable risks. Delaney clause is subject to some limitations in prioritizing the level of risk management for Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons. One of the problems is that it does not take into account the exact risk that a carcinogenic substance can pose once consumed (Dickey, p. 42). This is because the analytical chemistry has been improved and can detect even smaller quantities of chemicals as chemicals have become widely used nowadays. Regulatory agencies are thus faced with difficulties in trying to administer Delaney’s Clause because it applies to quantities used in large amounts and can easily be detected. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) confronted this problem by using quantitative risk assessment and set a standard known as â€Å"de minis†, which held that risk was negligible if a carcinogenic food additive was concentrated at less than 1part in 1,000,000 (Dickey, p. 45). The issue regarding pesticides use for which Delaney’s Clause prohibited also had limitations. This is found in section 409 and it poses difficulties to those agencies which has the mandate to regulate pesticides (Shimada and Fujii-Kuriyama, p. 71). Agencies like Federal Insecticide Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) and Federal Food Drug and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA) conflicts with Delaney’s Clause because they license the sale of pesticides and most probably if they are of more benefit to the country than the risk they pose. This is contrary to Delaney’s Clause which does not take into account the risk-benefit analysis but have a clear conclusion that if the pesticide in a food additive is evident to cause cancer inhuman being or in animals then it should

The Exploitation of Michael Jackson Research Paper

The Exploitation of Michael Jackson - Research Paper Example This paper will be showing how Michael Jackson has been viewed by the media and even his own fans. It will detail how he was used by other people and how media has always seen his negative side instead of his good points. It will argue that indeed, he was used and abused all his life. Then, this study will conclude with the real Michael Jackson, how he really is in the eyes of those who really knew who the person is beyond the mask. II. The Life of Michael Jackson When Michael Jackson first started his musical career, he instantly became the face of the local and international music scene, especially known for his pure vocal skills. His emotional expression when delivering his songs that were far beyond his age and experienced awed his audiences. His voice was still angelic despite puberty, unlike others whose voices change after a certain point. In fact, he went on to sell millions of records with his Off the Wall and Thriller albums. Soon after he had achieved such world class reco gnition, his name and face started to become the focus of the media. The motive for the countless fictional stories against Michael Jackson is still a mystery to date. However, a lot of people theorize that it could be an issue of power struggles, racism or simply the fact that he was famous. There were a lot of speculation regarding his sexuality and rumors spreading that he was homosexual. Naturally a private and shy individual, Jackson rarely talk about his relationships and sexuality. But the fact that he neither acknowledged nor denied the rumors about him being homosexual was enough for the media to pick on him even more. Michael Jackson loved and respected his fans so much, even those who were gay. The real reason why he did not disclose his sexual orientation was because he did not want to alienate these said fans. There were also reports that gained worldwide focus about Michael Jackson sleeping in an oxygen chamber as opposed to a normal bed. This story started when Jackson was severely injured due to an accident in the taping of his Pepsi advertisement. His hair caught on fire after one of the explosions’ spark fell on his hair. At twenty-six years old, he was practically left bald because of second and third degree burns. This sad incident required multiple skin grafts and reconstructive surgery. This sparked his empathy for victims of burns, donating the hyperbaric chamber and $1.5 million that he received on the settlement to the Brotman Medical Center. He also started the Michael Jackson Burn Center. Since them, tabloid media released images of Jackson seen â€Å"hammering around† in the chamber and came up with the story that he liked sleeping in it beca use he did not want to grow old. The press also displayed so much interest on the multimillion dollar estate of Michael Jackson located in Santa Barbara County. In here, he built a ranch equipped with a live animal zoo, trains, theaters and amusement park rides. He enjoyed going to theme parks but his fame did not permit him to do outings. Since he feared being mobbed by paparazzi and fans, he built his own amusement park, which he called the Neverland Valley Ranch (from his favorite children’s tale, Peter Pan) and made it available to sick and disadvantaged children. He can strongly relate to Mr. Barry, losing his personal childhood because of recordings, concerts and TV shows. Whimsical articles announced the oddity of the Neverland Ranch but Michael Jackson defended it

Legislation and common law responsibilities Essay

Legislation and common law responsibilities - Essay Example The responsible thing to do is to report the incident to my superior right away and to administer the appropriate first aid. The centre’s physician will be called upon to check if Isabella will suffer ill consequences of her ingestion of the milkshake, which has dairy products she is allergic to. Isabella’s parents will also be informed of the incident and the action taken to repair the damage, if any. Isabella’s family will be asked to complete a complaint form and raise the concern with the center director. The meeting is documented. Then the side of the concerned staff member the parent is complaining about is heard by the director, and likewise documented. Then the director acts as an arbiter when she calls a meeting for the parents and the staff concerned, in which the discussion is likewise documented. The director will try to arrange for a settlement of the complaint. However, if the complainant remains unsatisfied, then they could take it up to the manage ment committee. Uncle Paul may be a close relative of Eleni but since he is not listed as an authorized person to collect Eleni from the center, he is restricted from taking her without the permission of Natalie, Eleni’s mother. To validate his claim, Natalie must be contacted to verify if indeed she has given him permission to take Eleni to the party they are supposed to attend and remind her to inform the center next time an unauthorized person is given permission is to pick up Eleni to prevent any incidences of unnecessary waiting.

September 11th victims’ compensation Essay Example for Free

September 11th victims’ compensation Essay Why are family members of September 11th victims compensated more than a surviving family member of an American soldier killed in action? Thesis Statement: The effect of September 11 terrorist attacks are immeasurable and the families of the victims should be highly compensated for it’s the only tangible way for the society to show their compassion for the lives being sacrificed. Herman, S. a. W. , Michelle (2004). Repairing the Harm: A New Vision for Crime Victim Compensation in America. National Center for Victims of Crime, 73. The main intention of the authors why they wrote the article is mainly to present a complete picture of the various effects of the attack to the nation. They discuss how the bombing greatly affect the nation, emotionally, physically, and mentally. Many have been traumatized. The death of almost 3,000 people in the attack was a great loss to New York City and to the nation. According to the author, it’s really difficult to put dollar values on lives lost. Though compensation can not address all that the victims suffer, at least it can be a critical component in mending their broken hearts. As the title of the article goes, â€Å"Repairing the Harm†, it is a call for us to take part and show their compassion. Some issues about financial assistance are also being tackled. Different costs of crimes and its impacts are being mentioned too. The author also presented different researches and studies related to the topic. Above all, the article provides arguments on why financial compensation is important to those victims of crimes. I will use the arguments of the authors to defend my position on why the families of September 11th victims need high financial considerations.

Application of ERP Implementation Methodology Framework

Application of ERP Implementation Methodology Framework Chapter 1 Introduction This chapter will begin with a presentation of the background of my research area. The presentation will thereafter be followed by a problem and Significance of the research that will result in the objective and research question of my study. Background Over the past years innovation has arguably become one of the most discussed and sought after organisation-capabilities. It is recognised as a major goal of economic activity and one of the most important instruments through which organisations can gain advantages over their competitors. In order to survive in highly competitive business environments, companies have to continuously change their business processes. New conditions in the marketplace have provided a special stimulus to modelling business processes: product expansion, competitive sales conditions, development of global distribution networks, better informed customers, and the orientation of businesses towards satisfying the individual needs of the customer. In the light of this, business process reengineering has often been employed, and information technology is a frequently utilised approach used to improve business processes. This study stressed the necessity for organisational restructuring in the context of global information connectivity. Business Process Reengineering is an organisational method demanding radical redesign of business processes in order to achieve greater efficiency, better quality and more competitive production (Hammer and Champy, 1993). It means analysing and altering the business processes of the organisation as a whole. A business process includes activities and tasks that cross functional and/or organisational boundaries. Information technology (IT) is the most important factor in enabling newly redesigned processes. Modern information technology is oriented towards business processes and communications between persons using these processes, and is therefore called process and information technology (Ould, 1995). In that way, Business Process Reengineering can be described as organisational process redesign, with the direct influence of IT. At the same time organisational expenditure on Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) has also grown significantly during the 1990s and beyond. ERP systems have been adopted by the majority of large private sector organisations and many public sector organisations in the UK, Europe and the industrialised world in general. We would not expect this growing trend to materialise unless significant advantages were to be expected from the introduction of ERP systems. It is because ERP systems have such a significant impact on the organisation, the working practices of individuals and on human interaction that we wish to explore their impact on innovation. Origin of the term ERP In the 1960s, no manufacturing company could afford to own a computer. Therefore, both manufacturing and inventories were handled on the basis that companies must hold enough stocks to satisfy customer demand, and that customers would order what they had ordered in the past, quantity and time wise. There after manufacturing management systems have evolved in stages over the past 30 years from a simple means of calculating materials requirements to the automation of an entire enterprise. In the 1970s and 1980s, over-frequent changes in sales forecasts, entailing continual readjustments in production, as well as inflexible fixed system parameters, led material requirement planning (MRP) and master production schedule (MPS) to evolve into a new concept called manufacturing resource planning (MRPII) in 1980 (Kakouris Polychronopoulos, 2005). Finally in the early 1990s the generic concept Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP), incorporating all the MRPII functionality, in addition to Financ e, Supply Chain, Human Resources and Project Management functionality (Anderson, 1982; Wallace, 1986; Wilson et al., 1994). Figure1 illustrates the gradual evolution of the Enterprise Resource Planning with respect to time. Enterprise resource planning systems are commercial software packages that enable the integration of transaction-oriented data and business processes throughout an organisation (Markus and Tanis, 2000). The key elements of an Enterprise Resource Planning system according to Miller (2003) are: one large real-time database which reduces data redundancy and improves accuracy; integrated business process that cut across business functions such as supply chain management; and seamless transitions between business transactions. According to Newman (2003), Enterprise Resource Planning Systems are software modules for different business functions that are linked by a common database to produce an integrated enterprise-wide system. Enterprise Resource Planning packages, the enterprise system that makes company stick together, it is a nervous system of every corporation, large or small, when you check inside it tells whats going on, it helps you act as what nervous system do, how to react, to treat the information about competitors, about products, how do you get best out of it. It pays employees, makes billing, run accounts, interacts with customers, ships goods, basically it runs the process of any company and helps accelerate business innovation for your customers. They build process factories for enterprises, which are so flexible and configurable for the identical companies so that they can do different things with the same factories and Helping Companies Become Best-Run Businesses. ERP integrates key business and management functions and provides a view of the happenings in the company, in the areas of finance, human resources, manufacturing, supply chain, etc. (Davenport, 1998; James and Wolf, 2000). An ERP solution is valuable when it represents the characteristics demonstrated in Figure 2. Significance and objective of research In the 1990s, customers experienced more costly and complex ERP implementations then they expected (Eschinger et. al., 2003). One research group found that the average ERP implementation took 232 months, had a total cost of ownership of $15M, and rewarded the business with an average negative net present value of $1.5M (Wailgum, 2008). Because of their wide scope of application within a business, ERP software systems are typically complex and usually impose significant changes on staff work practices, Implementing ERP software system is typically not an in-house skill, so even smaller projects are more cost effective if specialist ERP implementation consultants are employed. The length of time to implement an ERP system depends on the size of the business, the scope of the change and willingness of the customer to take ownership for the project. A small project (e.g., a company of less than 100 staff) may be planned and delivered within 3-9 months; however, a large, multi-site or multi-country implementation may take years (for more details see table 1 and table 2). Although implementing an ERP system may be costly and time-consuming, its benefits are worthwhile. However, there are a number of examples where organisations have not been successful in reaping the potential benefits that motivated them to make large investments in ERP implementations (Davenport, 1998). The research is also predicting that ERP new license revenue will have fallen 24% in 2009, as companies severely rein back implementation and expansion projects. While the organisation expects ERP spending to rise slightly in 2010, vendors will be fighting hard for every available dollar, and that should translate into cost savings for customers (Kanaracus, 2010). Therefore year 2010 is predicted to be different and better in terms of ERP implementation. According to Langenwalter (2000), Enterprise Resource Planning implementation failure rate was from 40% to 60%, yet companies try to implement these systems because they are absolutely essential to responsive planning and communication (see Appendix 2 for ERP solution satisfaction). The competitive pressure unleashed by the process of globalisation is driving implementation of Enterprise Resource Planning projects in increasingly large numbers, so methodological framework for dealing with complex problem of evaluating Enterprise Resource Planning projects is required (Teltumbde, 2000). All ERP vendors came up with solution and build their implementation methodology which they recommend to all their clients to utilise the approach during their implementation and continuously looking for improvements in those methods. Therefore the Research in this subject will value the investment put in by the companies in these projects. The primary objective of this dissertation was to explore the application of ERP implementation methodology framework by different vendors when implementing ERP and to find commonalities or diversion in the ways of improvement by them. Therefore the key research questions that are the focus of this study are: To what extent different companies follow AcceleratedSAP as methodology when implementing SAP? Is different companies use different innovative ways to improve the process? Are there commonalities or diversion in this innovation? Chapter 2 Literature Review The purpose of this chapter is to present my theoretical framework. In this chapter first I will present different implementation framework models from some researchers and academician. Then select one model as my theoretical base. Information Systems Development Methodology Creation of an Information System is not a trivial matter, and must strive to fulfil four main goals; usefulness, usability, reliability and flexibility (Kruchten, 2000). To minimise risks of failure in any of these primary objectives there are a number of specialised development methodologies available, each with different strengths and weaknesses and suited to different project types: The Classic Model This model, often called the Waterfall model (figure 3), represents the traditional software lifecycle, and outlines an Information System project in clearly defined, partitioned phases that follow in sequential order (though the actual phases are not always the same) (Avgerou and Cornford, 1998). This approach has strengths when requirements are well known and unchanging, unfortunately problems with this approach are quickly identified. The main failings of this model stem from its linear nature, where each stage must be completed and the outputted deliverable passed to the next phase. This produces an inflexible model that is hard to step back to previous stages without changing everything (Avison and Fitzgerald, 2006). Due to this separated structure a gap of understanding can become present between users and developers, and as no deliverables are viewed until the end of the sequence unsatisfactory results can be delivered. It also typically suffers from long development times (wh ich are certainly not available in this project) and as such is not usually practised in the formal fashion (Avgerou and Cornford, 1998). This model alone is clearly unsuitable to the ERP implementation project as completion in a timely fashion is a key objective, and with this extra constraint risks will be extremely high. As such requirements capture/analysis will need to on-going throughout the entire process. With these points noted, a partially phased approach is attractive from a project management point of view, and an extensive initial requirements capture phase could greatly reduce project risks through understanding of the problem domain. Business Process Reengineering Implementing Methodologies One approach of information system development, which takes into account strategic aspects, is business process reengineering. It has presented organisation with the opportunity to rethink out dated procedures, rules, and assumptions underlying their business activities. This opportunity is usually enabled partly by the application of technology to outdated process (Avison and Fitzgerald, 2006). The initial research of the subject starts with Business Process Reengineering which is achieved by the adoption of ERP as it streamline the organisations processes by integrating the information flow into a single system. The term business process reengineering had its origin at MIT during 1984-1989 while MITs enumerating management techniques for the 1990s. Business process reengineering simply means transformation from function based to process based. The radical redesign of a process is easily achieved by involving information technology (IT) in business processes and hence the prominence of IT in business process reengineering. IT is accepted not only as just a business process reengineering enabler (Hammer and Champy, 1993) but also as an essential enabler of business process reengineering (Davenport and Short, 1998). There exists a recursive relationship between business process reengineering and IT which can be utilised for thorough process change. In the modern times and due to rapid proliferation of computers in the business arena, business process reengineering through IT is getting a big boost. Business process reengineering using IT emanated from gradual progression in the use of computers from routine clerical job processing to IT-based decision making. Many corporations reaped benefits by re-engineering their processes at various stages of IT development. At the same time, re-engineering cannot be planned and achieved in small cautious steps for any corporation (Hammer, 1990). Some of the commonly used IT tools for re-engineering are ERP systems. First we adopt the work of Kettinger al.s (1997) for a literature review on business process reengineering implementing methodologies also chosen by Pellerin and Hadaya (2008). This implementation methodology proposes a generic stage-activity framework for conducting business process reengineering projects, because The technology is derived from the methodologies practiced by 25 leading reengineering consulting organisations and Unlike most business process reengineering studies, in which the unit of analysis is the organisation, Kettinger et al.s (1997) work is cantered on the business process reengineering project, which is more relevant to Information System professionals. Kettinger et al.s (1997) framework comprises six stages, each containing the following activities (See Figure 4). The first stage, envision (S1), typically involves the business process reengineering project champion engendering the support of the top management. A task force, including senior executives and individuals knowledgeable about an organisations processes, is authorised to target a business process for improvement based on a review of business strategy and IT opportunities in the hope of improving the organisations overall performance. The second stage, initiate (S2), encompasses the assignment of a reengineering project team, setting of the performance goals, project planning and shareholder/employee notification and buy-in. This is frequently achieved by developing a business case for reengineering via bench-marking, identifying external customer needs, and cost benefit analysis. The third stage, diagnose (S3), is classified as the documentation of the current process and sub processes in terms of process attributes such as activities, resources, communication, roles, IT, and cost. In identifying process requirements and assigning customers value, root causes for the problems are surfaced, and non-value-adding activities are identified. The fourth stage, redesign (S4), a new process design is developed. This is accomplished by devising process design alternatives through brainstorming and creativity techniques. The new design should meet strategic objective and fit with the human resource and IT architecture. Documentation and prototyping of the new process is typically conducted, and a design of new information system to support the new process is completed. The fifth stage, reconstruct (S5), heavily relies on change management techniques to ensure smooth migration to new process responsibilities and human resources roles. During this stage, the IT platform and systems are implemented, and the users go through the training and transition. The sixth and last stage, evaluate (S6), requires monitoring of the new process to determine if it met its goal and often involves linkage to an organisations total quality program. This methodology was empirically derived from the methodologies practiced by 25 leading reengineering consulting firms which takes the management accounting perspective by attempting to reorganise business processes while using information as an enabler then it provides a set of tools and techniques to facilitate the reengineering effort and unlike most BPR studies, in which the unit of analysis is the organisation (Kettinger et al., 1997; Pellerin and Hadaya, 2008). This justifies the use of this methodology to build on the relation of further theories but just to compare and have further opinion let look at another business process reengineering implementation methodology. A seven-step methodology, as shown in Figure 5, that shows the various steps in IT driven business process reengineering implementation (Davenport and Short, 1998; Armistead and Rowland, 1996). These steps are prioritising processes based on the comparative importance of objectives, identifying the processes to be redesigned, understanding and measuring/benchmarking the existing processes, identifying the appropriate IT tool, designing/building a process prototype, testing the reengineered process, and implementing the changed process. The first step is to define the objectives of the process redesign which can be cost reduction, time reduction, improvement in output quality and/or improvement of quality of work life. Rarely, organisations become successful in meeting multiple objectives, concurrently. In the second step, selection of the processes to be redesigned is carried out. The two approaches, namely, exhaustive and high-impact approaches are available for the selection of the processes to be redesigned. Exhaustive approach ranks all processes to be redesigned based on the order of urgency prior to the identification of the process to be redesigned whereas the high-impact approach tries to identify only the most important processes which are in conflict with business vision and process objectives. The third step tries to measure the process before redesign in order to avoid repetition and to set a baseline for future improvements. In the fourth step, it is better to have a picture of all latest IT technologi es available for redesign prior to the redesign and freezing of the redesigned process under study. The fifth step can be easily dealt with by using IT as a design tool in creating a more generic design of the process under study in arriving at a suitable organisational prototype. After generating the redesigned process prototype, implement the same in one of the units of the organisation to study the actual benefits before launching it on an organisation wide basis and the same is done in the sixth step. If the pilot launch is found successful in meeting the process objectives, launch the redesigned process throughout the organisation which is the seventh and last step in IT-based implementation of the redesigned process. If both the implementation methodologies are compared there is not just the difference in number of steps between the two methodologies, there is also the difference in the approach in cut-overs where training of users are missing in second as well the pilots and rollouts are mentioned in the later methodology. This goes with Kettinger et als (1997) findings that, while business process reengineering implementing methodologies may vary based on philosophical differences, there is enough commonality among the practiced approaches to generally describe a prototypical business process reengineering efforts. Generic Enterprise Resource Planning Implementing Methodologies In the past, companies used to decide how they wanted to do business and then made a decision about a software package that best supported their business processes. This was changed with ERP systems that required the business processes to be modified to fit the system (Davenport, 1998). Business Process Reengineering implementation exists ranging from technology enabled re-engineering to clean slate re-engineering. If ERP system is chosen first, then the re-engineering is driven by the chosen ERP system or re-engineering is technology enabled. The reason why many companies chose to conduct ERP system development was to attempt to solve all their organisational problems without reengineering business processes first. Then the Costs involved with such re-engineering are very low as alteration done on the system is least or none. In clean slate re-engineering, design starts from scratch and ERP system software is highly customised to fit the processes of the enterprise in discussion. ERP implementation significantly impacts company culture, organisational structure, business processes, in addition to procedures and rules. Furthermore, ERP applications integrate many best business practices and much knowledge that could be worthwhile if included as a part of BPR projects. By taking the best practices inherent in ERP applications, companies can change their processes simultaneously with technological change. As a result, many companies changed their business processes to fit the ERP system requirements, and the possibilities of ERP systems have been used to underpin Business Process Reengineering (Kooch, 2001, Chenn, 2001). As ERP systems have traditionally taken too long to implement, a dynamic and incremental implementation of ERP components is recommended as opposed to massive reengineering. Also pointed by Ahmed (1999) the focus of ERP implementations has shifted from matching business processes with the ERP system to developing knowledge-workers that can quickly understand and work with redesigned processes and realise the ERP-enabled benefits. Boudreau and Robey (2005), suggest a vital importance to acceptance of ERP systems. They also note that if not successfully implemented, users may work around the system and otherwise doom the project to costly duplication of effort, or worse, system failure. A phased implementation approach is highlighted in Robey et al. (2002). It is important to have a structured approach, similar to systems development, for the implementation and maintenance of ERP systems. Systems development theory uses the concept of a lifecycle and stages in the lifecycle to indicate development of information systems. The waterfall model, incremental model, RAD (rapid application development) model and spiral model are some of the systems development methods prevalent in the literature. Newer approaches to systems development address component-based development using off-the-shelf packages, agile development and the unified process for object-oriented software development (Pressman, 2005). The newer approaches have fewer stages in the development of systems. For example, the unified process which draws upon the best practices of conventional software process models has inception, elaboration, construction and transition phases. A common aspect of all these models is that they focus little attention on implementation and the post implementation of the system. The literature review undertaken revealed a lack of research with regard to some critical factors of ERP implementation (eg client consultation, schedule and plans), and this could be due to the fact that these factors are related to any information system project, not particularly to ERP project implementation. However, and generally speaking, there has not yet been a common comprehensive or integrative approach to ERP implementation. Successful ERP project implementation is a complex and difficult task. Implementing an ERP system package causes vast change that needs to be managed carefully to get the full advantages (Bingi et al, 1999; Sor, 1999). More importantly, it has been stressed by many that it is really a mistake to view ERP project implementation as merely an IT project (Davenport, 2000; Milford Stewart, 2000; OLeary, 2000). A major difference between ERP systems and traditional information systems comes from the integrated nature of ERP applications. Implementing an ERP system causes dramatic changes that need to be carefully administrated to reap the advantages of an ERP solution. Holland and Light (1999) cite that the implementation of an ERP software package involves a mix of business process change and software configuration to align the software with the business processes. In that sense, it has become clear through the literature review, and studying the experiences of leading organisations, that the implementation of an ERP system is radically different from traditional systems development. In an ERP system implementation, the key focus has shifted from a heavy emphasis on technical analysis and programming towards business process design, business-focused software configuration (Kelly et al, 1999), and legacy data clean-up (Smethurst Kawalek, 1999). In essence, there are several critical and inter-related issues that must be carefully considered to ensure successful implementation of an ERP system project. The framework (Figure 6) presented in this report is the result a major research study undertaken to propose an integrative Critical Success Factors view of ERP. ERP system implementation has been subdivided into three levels: strategic, tactical, and operational. Each level contains a number of critical factors. These levels of implementation, however, are not independent of each other, and each level should be used to derive the next level. Moreover, each level requires differing inputs; for example, there is a direct relationship between the implementation level at which a decision is being taken and the characteristics of the information required supporting decision making (Bocij et al, 2008). Communication Communication is one of most challenging and difficult tasks in any ERP implementation project (Welti, 1999). Slevin and Pinto (1987) define communication as the provision of an appropriate network and necessary data to all key factors in the project implementation. Communication has to cover the scope, objectives, and tasks of an ERP implementation project (Sumner, 1999). Failure to establish and manage the communication process with stakeholders can lead to a lack of support from stakeholders, disapproval of the deliverables and dissatisfaction. ERP implementation levels Strategic level The decisions made at this level significantly change the manner in which business is being done (Bocij et al, 2008), and these decisions are the responsibility of top management (Schultheis Sumner, 1995; Turban et al, 2000). This level can be considered as the process of establishing overall goals and of planning how to achieve those goals. Kelly et al (1999) suggested that the strategic level is the premeditated plan for transforming the organisation, enabling it to operate in the new style environment. Current legacy system evaluation: This includes the existing IT (hardware and software), business processes, organisation structure, and culture. Holland and Light (1999) argue that the nature and scale of problems that are likely to be encountered can be defined by evaluating the existing legacy system (by asking what the status of the enterprises legacy system is and how it will affect the transition to ERP and common business processes). It is clear that ERP implementation involves a complex transition from legacy information systems and business processes to an integrated IT infrastructure and common business process throughout the organisation (Gibson et al, 1999). Project vision and objective: It is very important that the organisation has a clear sense of whom and what it is before implementing an ERP project (Davenport, 2000). A global survey showed that an understanding of business objectives and clear vision are key success factors (Cooke Peterson, 1998). Slevin and Pinto (1987) define project vision as the initial clarity of goals and general direction. Welti (1999) advises on determining the project vision in the planning phase, particularly within the project scope, where the project scope includes the project definition, objectives, and strategy. He argues that all these components of the project scope are compulsory to create a clear project vision. At this stage in the ERP project, the vision should provide a direction and general objective, and no details are required. ERP implementation strategy: This will be reviewed in this level to determine the impact of ERP system implementation on the enterprise. Trepper (1999) argues that the organisations executive managers must understand how ERP system implementation will impact on the organisation to ensure a smooth transition. Holland and Light (1999) suggest that the propensity of an organisation for change should influence the choice of ERP implementation project strategy. There are two main technical options to implement an ERP system: modify the ERP system package to suit an organisations requirements or the implementation of a standard package with minimum deviation from the standard settings. Companies that do not select the second option are liable to face major difficulties (Bancroft et al, 1998; Martin, 1998; Gibson et al, 1999). Hiring consultants: Due to the complexities of implementing an ERP system, most companies choose to hire consultants to help them select, configure, and implement the system. Welti (1999) argues that the success of a project depends on the capabilities of the consultants, because they have in-depth knowledge of the software. Somers and Nelson (2001) point out those consultants may be involved in different stages of the ERP project implementation. There are hundreds of companies that provide such ERP services. Since it is a critical success factor, it has to be managed and monitored very carefully. Benchmarking: Al-Mashari and Zairi (2000) argue that benchmarking works essentially at capturing both external and internal best practices related to all aspects of ERP system implementation, and enabling the transfer of knowledge across all levels of project implementation. They argue that benchmarking can play a significant role in shaping the strategic direction to be taken for change introduction using an ERP package. Tactical level At the tactical level, also termed managerial level, the medium-term planning of ERP specific organisational issues is largely concerned, where decisions are made by middle managers (Turban et al, 2000). In order to make sure that the enterprise is meeting its targets, objectives of top management are accomplished, and it is not wasting its resources, the tactical level provides middle-level managers with the information they need to monitor the performance of the organisation, control operations, and allocate resources and set policies effectively (Schultheis Sumner, 1995; Bocij et al, 2008). Client consultation: Slevin and Pinto (1987) define client consultation as the communication and consultation with, and active listening to all affected parties, mainly the client. It is essential for an organisation to keep its clients aware of its future project to avoid misconception. They also argued that the consultation with clients should occur early in the process; otherwise the chance of subsequent client acceptance will be lowered. In general, this factor has not been thoroughly discussed in the literature reviewed. Business process change (BPC): As mentioned before, there are two main options to implement ERP syst Application of ERP Implementation Methodology Framework Application of ERP Implementation Methodology Framework Chapter 1 Introduction This chapter will begin with a presentation of the background of my research area. The presentation will thereafter be followed by a problem and Significance of the research that will result in the objective and research question of my study. Background Over the past years innovation has arguably become one of the most discussed and sought after organisation-capabilities. It is recognised as a major goal of economic activity and one of the most important instruments through which organisations can gain advantages over their competitors. In order to survive in highly competitive business environments, companies have to continuously change their business processes. New conditions in the marketplace have provided a special stimulus to modelling business processes: product expansion, competitive sales conditions, development of global distribution networks, better informed customers, and the orientation of businesses towards satisfying the individual needs of the customer. In the light of this, business process reengineering has often been employed, and information technology is a frequently utilised approach used to improve business processes. This study stressed the necessity for organisational restructuring in the context of global information connectivity. Business Process Reengineering is an organisational method demanding radical redesign of business processes in order to achieve greater efficiency, better quality and more competitive production (Hammer and Champy, 1993). It means analysing and altering the business processes of the organisation as a whole. A business process includes activities and tasks that cross functional and/or organisational boundaries. Information technology (IT) is the most important factor in enabling newly redesigned processes. Modern information technology is oriented towards business processes and communications between persons using these processes, and is therefore called process and information technology (Ould, 1995). In that way, Business Process Reengineering can be described as organisational process redesign, with the direct influence of IT. At the same time organisational expenditure on Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) has also grown significantly during the 1990s and beyond. ERP systems have been adopted by the majority of large private sector organisations and many public sector organisations in the UK, Europe and the industrialised world in general. We would not expect this growing trend to materialise unless significant advantages were to be expected from the introduction of ERP systems. It is because ERP systems have such a significant impact on the organisation, the working practices of individuals and on human interaction that we wish to explore their impact on innovation. Origin of the term ERP In the 1960s, no manufacturing company could afford to own a computer. Therefore, both manufacturing and inventories were handled on the basis that companies must hold enough stocks to satisfy customer demand, and that customers would order what they had ordered in the past, quantity and time wise. There after manufacturing management systems have evolved in stages over the past 30 years from a simple means of calculating materials requirements to the automation of an entire enterprise. In the 1970s and 1980s, over-frequent changes in sales forecasts, entailing continual readjustments in production, as well as inflexible fixed system parameters, led material requirement planning (MRP) and master production schedule (MPS) to evolve into a new concept called manufacturing resource planning (MRPII) in 1980 (Kakouris Polychronopoulos, 2005). Finally in the early 1990s the generic concept Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP), incorporating all the MRPII functionality, in addition to Financ e, Supply Chain, Human Resources and Project Management functionality (Anderson, 1982; Wallace, 1986; Wilson et al., 1994). Figure1 illustrates the gradual evolution of the Enterprise Resource Planning with respect to time. Enterprise resource planning systems are commercial software packages that enable the integration of transaction-oriented data and business processes throughout an organisation (Markus and Tanis, 2000). The key elements of an Enterprise Resource Planning system according to Miller (2003) are: one large real-time database which reduces data redundancy and improves accuracy; integrated business process that cut across business functions such as supply chain management; and seamless transitions between business transactions. According to Newman (2003), Enterprise Resource Planning Systems are software modules for different business functions that are linked by a common database to produce an integrated enterprise-wide system. Enterprise Resource Planning packages, the enterprise system that makes company stick together, it is a nervous system of every corporation, large or small, when you check inside it tells whats going on, it helps you act as what nervous system do, how to react, to treat the information about competitors, about products, how do you get best out of it. It pays employees, makes billing, run accounts, interacts with customers, ships goods, basically it runs the process of any company and helps accelerate business innovation for your customers. They build process factories for enterprises, which are so flexible and configurable for the identical companies so that they can do different things with the same factories and Helping Companies Become Best-Run Businesses. ERP integrates key business and management functions and provides a view of the happenings in the company, in the areas of finance, human resources, manufacturing, supply chain, etc. (Davenport, 1998; James and Wolf, 2000). An ERP solution is valuable when it represents the characteristics demonstrated in Figure 2. Significance and objective of research In the 1990s, customers experienced more costly and complex ERP implementations then they expected (Eschinger et. al., 2003). One research group found that the average ERP implementation took 232 months, had a total cost of ownership of $15M, and rewarded the business with an average negative net present value of $1.5M (Wailgum, 2008). Because of their wide scope of application within a business, ERP software systems are typically complex and usually impose significant changes on staff work practices, Implementing ERP software system is typically not an in-house skill, so even smaller projects are more cost effective if specialist ERP implementation consultants are employed. The length of time to implement an ERP system depends on the size of the business, the scope of the change and willingness of the customer to take ownership for the project. A small project (e.g., a company of less than 100 staff) may be planned and delivered within 3-9 months; however, a large, multi-site or multi-country implementation may take years (for more details see table 1 and table 2). Although implementing an ERP system may be costly and time-consuming, its benefits are worthwhile. However, there are a number of examples where organisations have not been successful in reaping the potential benefits that motivated them to make large investments in ERP implementations (Davenport, 1998). The research is also predicting that ERP new license revenue will have fallen 24% in 2009, as companies severely rein back implementation and expansion projects. While the organisation expects ERP spending to rise slightly in 2010, vendors will be fighting hard for every available dollar, and that should translate into cost savings for customers (Kanaracus, 2010). Therefore year 2010 is predicted to be different and better in terms of ERP implementation. According to Langenwalter (2000), Enterprise Resource Planning implementation failure rate was from 40% to 60%, yet companies try to implement these systems because they are absolutely essential to responsive planning and communication (see Appendix 2 for ERP solution satisfaction). The competitive pressure unleashed by the process of globalisation is driving implementation of Enterprise Resource Planning projects in increasingly large numbers, so methodological framework for dealing with complex problem of evaluating Enterprise Resource Planning projects is required (Teltumbde, 2000). All ERP vendors came up with solution and build their implementation methodology which they recommend to all their clients to utilise the approach during their implementation and continuously looking for improvements in those methods. Therefore the Research in this subject will value the investment put in by the companies in these projects. The primary objective of this dissertation was to explore the application of ERP implementation methodology framework by different vendors when implementing ERP and to find commonalities or diversion in the ways of improvement by them. Therefore the key research questions that are the focus of this study are: To what extent different companies follow AcceleratedSAP as methodology when implementing SAP? Is different companies use different innovative ways to improve the process? Are there commonalities or diversion in this innovation? Chapter 2 Literature Review The purpose of this chapter is to present my theoretical framework. In this chapter first I will present different implementation framework models from some researchers and academician. Then select one model as my theoretical base. Information Systems Development Methodology Creation of an Information System is not a trivial matter, and must strive to fulfil four main goals; usefulness, usability, reliability and flexibility (Kruchten, 2000). To minimise risks of failure in any of these primary objectives there are a number of specialised development methodologies available, each with different strengths and weaknesses and suited to different project types: The Classic Model This model, often called the Waterfall model (figure 3), represents the traditional software lifecycle, and outlines an Information System project in clearly defined, partitioned phases that follow in sequential order (though the actual phases are not always the same) (Avgerou and Cornford, 1998). This approach has strengths when requirements are well known and unchanging, unfortunately problems with this approach are quickly identified. The main failings of this model stem from its linear nature, where each stage must be completed and the outputted deliverable passed to the next phase. This produces an inflexible model that is hard to step back to previous stages without changing everything (Avison and Fitzgerald, 2006). Due to this separated structure a gap of understanding can become present between users and developers, and as no deliverables are viewed until the end of the sequence unsatisfactory results can be delivered. It also typically suffers from long development times (wh ich are certainly not available in this project) and as such is not usually practised in the formal fashion (Avgerou and Cornford, 1998). This model alone is clearly unsuitable to the ERP implementation project as completion in a timely fashion is a key objective, and with this extra constraint risks will be extremely high. As such requirements capture/analysis will need to on-going throughout the entire process. With these points noted, a partially phased approach is attractive from a project management point of view, and an extensive initial requirements capture phase could greatly reduce project risks through understanding of the problem domain. Business Process Reengineering Implementing Methodologies One approach of information system development, which takes into account strategic aspects, is business process reengineering. It has presented organisation with the opportunity to rethink out dated procedures, rules, and assumptions underlying their business activities. This opportunity is usually enabled partly by the application of technology to outdated process (Avison and Fitzgerald, 2006). The initial research of the subject starts with Business Process Reengineering which is achieved by the adoption of ERP as it streamline the organisations processes by integrating the information flow into a single system. The term business process reengineering had its origin at MIT during 1984-1989 while MITs enumerating management techniques for the 1990s. Business process reengineering simply means transformation from function based to process based. The radical redesign of a process is easily achieved by involving information technology (IT) in business processes and hence the prominence of IT in business process reengineering. IT is accepted not only as just a business process reengineering enabler (Hammer and Champy, 1993) but also as an essential enabler of business process reengineering (Davenport and Short, 1998). There exists a recursive relationship between business process reengineering and IT which can be utilised for thorough process change. In the modern times and due to rapid proliferation of computers in the business arena, business process reengineering through IT is getting a big boost. Business process reengineering using IT emanated from gradual progression in the use of computers from routine clerical job processing to IT-based decision making. Many corporations reaped benefits by re-engineering their processes at various stages of IT development. At the same time, re-engineering cannot be planned and achieved in small cautious steps for any corporation (Hammer, 1990). Some of the commonly used IT tools for re-engineering are ERP systems. First we adopt the work of Kettinger al.s (1997) for a literature review on business process reengineering implementing methodologies also chosen by Pellerin and Hadaya (2008). This implementation methodology proposes a generic stage-activity framework for conducting business process reengineering projects, because The technology is derived from the methodologies practiced by 25 leading reengineering consulting organisations and Unlike most business process reengineering studies, in which the unit of analysis is the organisation, Kettinger et al.s (1997) work is cantered on the business process reengineering project, which is more relevant to Information System professionals. Kettinger et al.s (1997) framework comprises six stages, each containing the following activities (See Figure 4). The first stage, envision (S1), typically involves the business process reengineering project champion engendering the support of the top management. A task force, including senior executives and individuals knowledgeable about an organisations processes, is authorised to target a business process for improvement based on a review of business strategy and IT opportunities in the hope of improving the organisations overall performance. The second stage, initiate (S2), encompasses the assignment of a reengineering project team, setting of the performance goals, project planning and shareholder/employee notification and buy-in. This is frequently achieved by developing a business case for reengineering via bench-marking, identifying external customer needs, and cost benefit analysis. The third stage, diagnose (S3), is classified as the documentation of the current process and sub processes in terms of process attributes such as activities, resources, communication, roles, IT, and cost. In identifying process requirements and assigning customers value, root causes for the problems are surfaced, and non-value-adding activities are identified. The fourth stage, redesign (S4), a new process design is developed. This is accomplished by devising process design alternatives through brainstorming and creativity techniques. The new design should meet strategic objective and fit with the human resource and IT architecture. Documentation and prototyping of the new process is typically conducted, and a design of new information system to support the new process is completed. The fifth stage, reconstruct (S5), heavily relies on change management techniques to ensure smooth migration to new process responsibilities and human resources roles. During this stage, the IT platform and systems are implemented, and the users go through the training and transition. The sixth and last stage, evaluate (S6), requires monitoring of the new process to determine if it met its goal and often involves linkage to an organisations total quality program. This methodology was empirically derived from the methodologies practiced by 25 leading reengineering consulting firms which takes the management accounting perspective by attempting to reorganise business processes while using information as an enabler then it provides a set of tools and techniques to facilitate the reengineering effort and unlike most BPR studies, in which the unit of analysis is the organisation (Kettinger et al., 1997; Pellerin and Hadaya, 2008). This justifies the use of this methodology to build on the relation of further theories but just to compare and have further opinion let look at another business process reengineering implementation methodology. A seven-step methodology, as shown in Figure 5, that shows the various steps in IT driven business process reengineering implementation (Davenport and Short, 1998; Armistead and Rowland, 1996). These steps are prioritising processes based on the comparative importance of objectives, identifying the processes to be redesigned, understanding and measuring/benchmarking the existing processes, identifying the appropriate IT tool, designing/building a process prototype, testing the reengineered process, and implementing the changed process. The first step is to define the objectives of the process redesign which can be cost reduction, time reduction, improvement in output quality and/or improvement of quality of work life. Rarely, organisations become successful in meeting multiple objectives, concurrently. In the second step, selection of the processes to be redesigned is carried out. The two approaches, namely, exhaustive and high-impact approaches are available for the selection of the processes to be redesigned. Exhaustive approach ranks all processes to be redesigned based on the order of urgency prior to the identification of the process to be redesigned whereas the high-impact approach tries to identify only the most important processes which are in conflict with business vision and process objectives. The third step tries to measure the process before redesign in order to avoid repetition and to set a baseline for future improvements. In the fourth step, it is better to have a picture of all latest IT technologi es available for redesign prior to the redesign and freezing of the redesigned process under study. The fifth step can be easily dealt with by using IT as a design tool in creating a more generic design of the process under study in arriving at a suitable organisational prototype. After generating the redesigned process prototype, implement the same in one of the units of the organisation to study the actual benefits before launching it on an organisation wide basis and the same is done in the sixth step. If the pilot launch is found successful in meeting the process objectives, launch the redesigned process throughout the organisation which is the seventh and last step in IT-based implementation of the redesigned process. If both the implementation methodologies are compared there is not just the difference in number of steps between the two methodologies, there is also the difference in the approach in cut-overs where training of users are missing in second as well the pilots and rollouts are mentioned in the later methodology. This goes with Kettinger et als (1997) findings that, while business process reengineering implementing methodologies may vary based on philosophical differences, there is enough commonality among the practiced approaches to generally describe a prototypical business process reengineering efforts. Generic Enterprise Resource Planning Implementing Methodologies In the past, companies used to decide how they wanted to do business and then made a decision about a software package that best supported their business processes. This was changed with ERP systems that required the business processes to be modified to fit the system (Davenport, 1998). Business Process Reengineering implementation exists ranging from technology enabled re-engineering to clean slate re-engineering. If ERP system is chosen first, then the re-engineering is driven by the chosen ERP system or re-engineering is technology enabled. The reason why many companies chose to conduct ERP system development was to attempt to solve all their organisational problems without reengineering business processes first. Then the Costs involved with such re-engineering are very low as alteration done on the system is least or none. In clean slate re-engineering, design starts from scratch and ERP system software is highly customised to fit the processes of the enterprise in discussion. ERP implementation significantly impacts company culture, organisational structure, business processes, in addition to procedures and rules. Furthermore, ERP applications integrate many best business practices and much knowledge that could be worthwhile if included as a part of BPR projects. By taking the best practices inherent in ERP applications, companies can change their processes simultaneously with technological change. As a result, many companies changed their business processes to fit the ERP system requirements, and the possibilities of ERP systems have been used to underpin Business Process Reengineering (Kooch, 2001, Chenn, 2001). As ERP systems have traditionally taken too long to implement, a dynamic and incremental implementation of ERP components is recommended as opposed to massive reengineering. Also pointed by Ahmed (1999) the focus of ERP implementations has shifted from matching business processes with the ERP system to developing knowledge-workers that can quickly understand and work with redesigned processes and realise the ERP-enabled benefits. Boudreau and Robey (2005), suggest a vital importance to acceptance of ERP systems. They also note that if not successfully implemented, users may work around the system and otherwise doom the project to costly duplication of effort, or worse, system failure. A phased implementation approach is highlighted in Robey et al. (2002). It is important to have a structured approach, similar to systems development, for the implementation and maintenance of ERP systems. Systems development theory uses the concept of a lifecycle and stages in the lifecycle to indicate development of information systems. The waterfall model, incremental model, RAD (rapid application development) model and spiral model are some of the systems development methods prevalent in the literature. Newer approaches to systems development address component-based development using off-the-shelf packages, agile development and the unified process for object-oriented software development (Pressman, 2005). The newer approaches have fewer stages in the development of systems. For example, the unified process which draws upon the best practices of conventional software process models has inception, elaboration, construction and transition phases. A common aspect of all these models is that they focus little attention on implementation and the post implementation of the system. The literature review undertaken revealed a lack of research with regard to some critical factors of ERP implementation (eg client consultation, schedule and plans), and this could be due to the fact that these factors are related to any information system project, not particularly to ERP project implementation. However, and generally speaking, there has not yet been a common comprehensive or integrative approach to ERP implementation. Successful ERP project implementation is a complex and difficult task. Implementing an ERP system package causes vast change that needs to be managed carefully to get the full advantages (Bingi et al, 1999; Sor, 1999). More importantly, it has been stressed by many that it is really a mistake to view ERP project implementation as merely an IT project (Davenport, 2000; Milford Stewart, 2000; OLeary, 2000). A major difference between ERP systems and traditional information systems comes from the integrated nature of ERP applications. Implementing an ERP system causes dramatic changes that need to be carefully administrated to reap the advantages of an ERP solution. Holland and Light (1999) cite that the implementation of an ERP software package involves a mix of business process change and software configuration to align the software with the business processes. In that sense, it has become clear through the literature review, and studying the experiences of leading organisations, that the implementation of an ERP system is radically different from traditional systems development. In an ERP system implementation, the key focus has shifted from a heavy emphasis on technical analysis and programming towards business process design, business-focused software configuration (Kelly et al, 1999), and legacy data clean-up (Smethurst Kawalek, 1999). In essence, there are several critical and inter-related issues that must be carefully considered to ensure successful implementation of an ERP system project. The framework (Figure 6) presented in this report is the result a major research study undertaken to propose an integrative Critical Success Factors view of ERP. ERP system implementation has been subdivided into three levels: strategic, tactical, and operational. Each level contains a number of critical factors. These levels of implementation, however, are not independent of each other, and each level should be used to derive the next level. Moreover, each level requires differing inputs; for example, there is a direct relationship between the implementation level at which a decision is being taken and the characteristics of the information required supporting decision making (Bocij et al, 2008). Communication Communication is one of most challenging and difficult tasks in any ERP implementation project (Welti, 1999). Slevin and Pinto (1987) define communication as the provision of an appropriate network and necessary data to all key factors in the project implementation. Communication has to cover the scope, objectives, and tasks of an ERP implementation project (Sumner, 1999). Failure to establish and manage the communication process with stakeholders can lead to a lack of support from stakeholders, disapproval of the deliverables and dissatisfaction. ERP implementation levels Strategic level The decisions made at this level significantly change the manner in which business is being done (Bocij et al, 2008), and these decisions are the responsibility of top management (Schultheis Sumner, 1995; Turban et al, 2000). This level can be considered as the process of establishing overall goals and of planning how to achieve those goals. Kelly et al (1999) suggested that the strategic level is the premeditated plan for transforming the organisation, enabling it to operate in the new style environment. Current legacy system evaluation: This includes the existing IT (hardware and software), business processes, organisation structure, and culture. Holland and Light (1999) argue that the nature and scale of problems that are likely to be encountered can be defined by evaluating the existing legacy system (by asking what the status of the enterprises legacy system is and how it will affect the transition to ERP and common business processes). It is clear that ERP implementation involves a complex transition from legacy information systems and business processes to an integrated IT infrastructure and common business process throughout the organisation (Gibson et al, 1999). Project vision and objective: It is very important that the organisation has a clear sense of whom and what it is before implementing an ERP project (Davenport, 2000). A global survey showed that an understanding of business objectives and clear vision are key success factors (Cooke Peterson, 1998). Slevin and Pinto (1987) define project vision as the initial clarity of goals and general direction. Welti (1999) advises on determining the project vision in the planning phase, particularly within the project scope, where the project scope includes the project definition, objectives, and strategy. He argues that all these components of the project scope are compulsory to create a clear project vision. At this stage in the ERP project, the vision should provide a direction and general objective, and no details are required. ERP implementation strategy: This will be reviewed in this level to determine the impact of ERP system implementation on the enterprise. Trepper (1999) argues that the organisations executive managers must understand how ERP system implementation will impact on the organisation to ensure a smooth transition. Holland and Light (1999) suggest that the propensity of an organisation for change should influence the choice of ERP implementation project strategy. There are two main technical options to implement an ERP system: modify the ERP system package to suit an organisations requirements or the implementation of a standard package with minimum deviation from the standard settings. Companies that do not select the second option are liable to face major difficulties (Bancroft et al, 1998; Martin, 1998; Gibson et al, 1999). Hiring consultants: Due to the complexities of implementing an ERP system, most companies choose to hire consultants to help them select, configure, and implement the system. Welti (1999) argues that the success of a project depends on the capabilities of the consultants, because they have in-depth knowledge of the software. Somers and Nelson (2001) point out those consultants may be involved in different stages of the ERP project implementation. There are hundreds of companies that provide such ERP services. Since it is a critical success factor, it has to be managed and monitored very carefully. Benchmarking: Al-Mashari and Zairi (2000) argue that benchmarking works essentially at capturing both external and internal best practices related to all aspects of ERP system implementation, and enabling the transfer of knowledge across all levels of project implementation. They argue that benchmarking can play a significant role in shaping the strategic direction to be taken for change introduction using an ERP package. Tactical level At the tactical level, also termed managerial level, the medium-term planning of ERP specific organisational issues is largely concerned, where decisions are made by middle managers (Turban et al, 2000). In order to make sure that the enterprise is meeting its targets, objectives of top management are accomplished, and it is not wasting its resources, the tactical level provides middle-level managers with the information they need to monitor the performance of the organisation, control operations, and allocate resources and set policies effectively (Schultheis Sumner, 1995; Bocij et al, 2008). Client consultation: Slevin and Pinto (1987) define client consultation as the communication and consultation with, and active listening to all affected parties, mainly the client. It is essential for an organisation to keep its clients aware of its future project to avoid misconception. They also argued that the consultation with clients should occur early in the process; otherwise the chance of subsequent client acceptance will be lowered. In general, this factor has not been thoroughly discussed in the literature reviewed. Business process change (BPC): As mentioned before, there are two main options to implement ERP syst